Modeling of asphalt durability and self-healing with discrete particles method

Asphalt is an important road paving material. Besides an acceptable price, durability, surface conditions (like roughening and evenness), age-, weather- and traffic-induced failures and degradation are relevant aspects. In the professional road-engineering branch empirical models are used to describe the mechanical behaviour of the material and to address large-scale problems for road distress phenomena like rutting, ravelling, cracking and roughness. The mesoscopic granular nature of asphalt and the mechanics of the bitumen layer between the particles are only partly involved in this kind of approach. The discrete particle method is a modern tool that allows for arbitrary (self- )organization of the asphalt meso-structure and for rearrangements due to compaction and cyclic loading. This is of utmost importance for asphalt during the construction phase and the usage period, in forecasting the relevant distress phenomena and understand their origin on the grain-, contact-, or molecular scales. Contact models that involve viscoelasticity, plasticity, friction and roughness are state-of-the art in fields like particle technology and can now be modified for asphalt and validated experimentally on small samples. The ultimate goal is then to derive micro- and meso-based constitutive models that can be applied to model behaviour of asphalt pavements on the larger macroscale. Using the new contact models, damage and crack formation in asphalt and their propagation can be modelled, as well as compaction. Furthermore, the possibility to trigger self-healing in the material can be investigated from a micro-mechanical point of view

Numerical and experimental investigation of yielding for cohesive dry powder

We study the effect of particle cohesion on the steady state shear strength of a granular material. For cohesive powders, the steady state shear loci (termination loci) from DEM simulations are nonlinear with a peculiar pressure dependence due to the non-linear increase of contact adhesion with pressure in the contact model. Physical experiments are carried out on fine limestone powder in the direct shear box to validate the interesting non-linearity in the material behavior, as detected by the simulations and to provide a basis for calibration of DEM. In order to enhance the reproducibility, the standard test procedure from Jenike shear tester is ameliorated for the direct shear tester. Finally, the difference between the yield (transition from static to flow) and the steady state shear stress (required to maintain shear motion) will be addresse

Modelleren van asfalt verdichting met de discrete elementen methode en laboratorium onderzoek

Asfalt is een belangrijk verhardingsmateriaal. Naast een acceptabele prijs, zijn duurzaamheid, stroefheid en voldoende weerstand tegen veroudering en verkeersbelastingen belangrijke aspecten. Een goede conditie van de asfaltverharding is noodzakelijk voor veilig gebruik van de mogelijkheden voor verkeer en vervoer binnen onze maatschappij. Het verdichtingsproces is hierin erg belangrijk, want dit bepaald de uiteindelijke kwaliteit van de verharding bij gebruik van het asfalt. Tijdens het verdichtingsproces wordt het aggregaat in het asfalt dichter op en in elkaar gedrukt en lucht verdreven uit het asfalt. Het verdichten is hoofdzakelijk gebaseerd op ervaringskennis (een vakmanschap), men weet welk resultaat bij benadering mag worden verwacht als onder vergelijkbare omstandigheden met vergelijkbare mengsels wordt gewerkt. Echter als er buiten het ervaringsgebied gewerkt moet worden, zoals bij het intreden van nieuwe mengsels, is het te verwachten resultaat onzeker. Numerieke modellen zouden hier meer inzicht kunnen bieden. Het blijkt echter lastig om een complex materiaal als asfalt te modelleren, huidige gedetailleerde, realistische modellen zijn vaak complex en worden op een kleine schaal, of slechts tweedimensionaal toegepast. In deze studie is een eenvoudig driedimensionaal model opgesteld, gebaseerd op de discrete elementen methode, waarmee door het aanbrengen van een eenassige belasting verdichting is nagebootst. Het gedrag van het asfalt wordt voorgeschreven door het gebruikte contactmodel (in DEM), opgetreden vervormingen blijken goed overeen te komen met laboratorium proeven waar eveneens eenassige verdichting is nagebootst. Zodat relevante contactmodel parameters gelinkt kunnen worden aan de fysische aspecten van het asfalt. In de bijdrage beschrijven we beknopt het model, de uitgevoerde simulaties en vergelijking van numerieke resultaten met laboratorium teste

Hydrostatic and shear behavior of frictionless granular assemblies under different deformation conditions

Stress- and structure-anisotropy (bulk) responses to various deformation modes are studied for dense packings of linearly elastic, frictionless, polydisperse spheres in the (periodic) triaxial box element test configuration. The major goal is to formulate a guideline for the procedure of how to calibrate a theoretical model with discrete particle simulations of selected element tests and then to predict another element test with the calibrated model (parameters).\ud 　Only the simplest possible particulate model material is chosen as the basic reference example for all future studies that aim at the quantitative modeling of more realistic frictional, cohesive powders. Seemingly unrealistic materials are used to exclude effects that are due to contact non-linearity, friction, and/or non-sphericity. This allows us to unravel the peculiar interplay of stress, strain, and microstructure, i.e. fabric.\ud 　Different elementary modes of deformation are isotropic, deviatoric (volume-conserving), and their superposition, e.g. a uniaxial compression test. Other ring-shear or stress-controlled (e.g. isobaric) element tests are referred to, but are not studied here. The deformation modes used in this study are especially suited for the bi- and triaxial box element test set-up and provide the foundations for understanding and predicting powder flow in many other experimental devices. The qualitative phenomenology presented here is expected to be valid, even clearer and magnified, in the presence of non-linear contact models, friction, non-spherical particles and, possibly, even for strong attractive/ adhesive forces.\ud 　The scalar (volumetric, isotropic) bulk properties, the coordination number and the hydrostatic pressure scale qualitatively differently with isotropic strain. Otherwise, they behave in a very similar fashion irrespective of the deformation path applied. The deviatoric stress response (i.e. stressanisotropy), besides its proportionality to the deviatoric strain, is cross-coupled to the isotropic mode of deformation via the structural anisotropy; likewise, the evolution of pressure is coupled via the structural anisotropy to the deviatoric strain, leading to dilatancy/compactancy. Isotropic/uniaxial over-compression or pure shear respectively slightly increase or reduce the jamming volume fraction below which the packing loses mechanical stability. This observation suggests a necessary generalization of the concept of the jamming volume fraction from a single value to a “wide range” of values as a consequence of the deformation history of the granular material, as “stored/memorized” in the structural anisotropy.\ud 　The constitutive model with incremental evolution equations for stress and structural anisotropy takes this into account. Its material parameters are extracted from discrete element method (DEM) simulations of isotropic and deviatoric (pure shear) modes as volume fraction dependent quantities. Based on this calibration, the theory is able to predict qualitatively (and to some extent also quantitatively) both the stress and fabric evolution in another test, namely the uniaxial, mixed mode during compression. This work is in the spirit of the PARDEM project funded by the European Unio

Particle Modelling with the Discrete Element Method - A success story of PARDEM

Bulk handling, transport and processing of particulate materials such as powders and granules are integral to a wide range of industrial processes in many fields [1] and [3] or natural, geophysical phenomena and hazards like landslides [3]. Particulate systems are difficult to handle and display unpredictable behaviour, which represents a great challenge for both design and operation of unit operations and plants, but also for the research community of Powders and Grains [5] and [6]. Granular materials and powders consist of discrete particles such as individual sand-grains, agglomerates (comprising of many primary particles), or bonded solid materials like sandstone, ceramics, or some metals or polymers sintered during additive manufacturing. The primary particles can be as small as nano-metres, micro-metres, or millimetres [6] covering multiple scales in size and a variety of mechanical interaction mechanisms. Those interactions include friction and a variety of cohesive forces [8] and [9], which becomes more and more important the smaller the particles are. All these particle systems have a particulate, usually disordered, inhomogeneous and often anisotropic micro-structure, which is at the core of many of the challenges one faces when trying to understand powder technology and granular matte

Characterization of cohesive powders for bulk handling and DEM modelling

The flow behaviour of granular materials is relevant for many industrial applications including the pharmaceutical, chemical, consumer goods and food industries. A key issue is the accurate characterisation of these powders under different loading conditions and flow regimes, for example in mixers, pneumatic conveyors and silo filling and discharge. This paper explores the experimental aspects of cohesive powder handling at different compaction levels and flow regimes, namely inertial and quasi-static regimes. So far, laboratory element test set-ups capable of defining the full stress states at very low compaction levels have not been fully explored in literature. In contrast the mechanical behaviour of cohesive powders under relatively high consolidation stress (several kPa upward) can be carefully measured using element tests such as biaxial test, true triaxial and hollow cylinder tests. However in practice these tests are expensive and slow to conduct and are almost never performed for many industrial applications requiring material characterisation. Here we investigate simpler techniques that could be used for filling this important gap with the focus of providing test data for model calibration and simulation validation in line with the spirit of the European Commission funded PARDEM Marie Curie ITN Project. We perform particle and bulk characterisation on limestone powder with 4.7μm and 31.3 μm mean particle size, detergent powder with differences in formulation, cocoa powder with low and high fat content - relevant for different industrial applications. Of particular significance is the 4.7μm limestone powder which is the PARDEM reference powder that have been created and extensively used in a collaborative European PARDEM Project (www.pardem.eu). In the inertial, low consolidation stress regimes - more relevant for powder transport and conveying applications - we present experimental findings on the flowability and avalanching behaviour of the reference material in a rotating drum. On the other hand, in the quasi-static, higher consolidation regime, we perform shear tests with the Edinburgh Powder Tester (EPT), an extended uniaxial tester and the commercially available Freeman FT4 Powder Rheometer. For macroscopic quantities, we report the unconfined yield strength as a function of applied stress. These material characteristics provide important scientific insights for developing innovative solutions for cohesive powder handling problems. From these experiments and for best practice guideline, we highlight subtle issues associated with the experimental setup and measurements. The experiments lead to a rich quantitative description of the flow behaviour and failure properties of the materials which provide the material data for DEM model calibration and validation

Characterisation of cohesive powders for bulk handling and DEM modelling

The flow behaviour of granular materials is relevant for many industrial applications including the pharmaceutical, chemical, consumer goods and food industries. A key issue is the accurate characterisation of these powders under different loading conditions and flow regimes, for example in mixers, pneumatic conveyors and silo filling and discharge. This paper explores the experimental aspects of cohesive powder handling at different compaction levels and flow regimes, namely inertial and quasi-static regimes. So far, laboratory element test set-ups capable of defining the full stress states at very low compaction levels have not been fully explored in literature. In contrast the mechanical behaviour of cohesive powders under relatively high consolidation stress (several kPa upward) can be carefully measured using element tests such as biaxial test, true triaxial and hollow cylinder tests. However in practice these tests are expensive and slow to conduct and are almost never performed for many industrial applications requiring material characterisation. Here we investigate simpler techniques that could be used for filling this important gap with the focus of providing test data for model calibration and simulation validation in line with the spirit of the European Commission funded PARDEM Marie Curie ITN Project. We perform particle and bulk characterisation on limestone powder with 4.7µm and 31.3 µm mean particle size, detergent powder with differences in formulation, cocoa powder with low and high fat content - relevant for different industrial applications. Of particular significance is the 4.7µm limestone powder which is the PARDEM reference powder that have been created and extensively used in a collaborative European PARDEM Project (www.pardem.eu). In the inertial, low consolidation stress regimes - more relevant for powder transport and conveying applications - we present experimental findings on the flowability and avalanching behaviour of the reference material in a rotating drum. On the other hand, in the quasi-static, higher consolidation regime, we perform shear tests with the Edinburgh Powder Tester (EPT), an extended uniaxial tester and the commercially available Freeman FT4 Powder Rheometer. For macroscopic quantities, we report the unconfined yield strength as a function of applied stress. These material characteristics provide important scientific insights for developing innovative solutions for cohesive powder handling problems. From these experiments and for best practice guideline, we highlight subtle issues associated with the experimental setup and measurements. The experiments lead to a rich quantitative description of the flow behaviour and failure properties of the materials which provide the material data for DEM model calibration and validation